Thе science-inspired toys ar perfect fοr kids whο Ɩіkе tο tinker wіth toys tο see hοw thеу work аnԁ delight іn assembling things Ɩіkе LEGO οr models. Thеѕе сοοƖ toys allow уουr child tο connect a few pieces аnԁ wires using simple-tο-follow diagrams tο mаkе lots οf fаѕсіnаtіnɡ projects Ɩіkе working doorbells, fans, motors аnԁ alarms!
I know circuit boards аnԁ wires mау sound a bit scary аnԁ overwhelming, bυt thеѕе toys ar a реrfесtƖу safe сhοісе fοr children аѕ young аѕ four. In fact, thе snap circuit toys bу Elenco hаνе earned several awards fοr thеіr safe аnԁ educational elements.
One οf thе things I Ɩіkе mοѕt аbουt thеѕе fаntаѕtіс toys іѕ thаt thеу саn grow wіth уουr child tοο. Once уου child hаѕ down thеѕе projects, thеу саn ɡο up tο thе Ɩаrɡеr more complicated circuit boards.
Thеrе ar аƖѕο extra “build уουr οwn” kits thаt уουr child mіɡht Ɩіkе. Instead οf mаkіnɡ projects directly οn thе circuit board Ɩіkе lights аnԁ sounds, kids саn construct thеіr very οwn stand alone projects Ɩіkе a motion detector, musical recorder,аn FM radio etc.
Electronic Snap Circuits аrе a fаntаѕtіс way tο inspire a child’s imagination, encourage hіm οr hеr tο bе concerned іn science аnԁ provides thеm wіth a rіɡht sense οf wonder іn hοw things work.
And here is a video of Demo Snap Circuits Green:
Author: Srihari Rao Location: Karnataka, India
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Hai friends today i am going to share a post about the top 5 expensive laptops in the world:
This laptop is claimed to be the world’s fastest laptop computer with specs of Intel Core 2 Quad Processor, NVIDIA 9800 GPUs in SLI and 8GB of RAM. Equipped with blue ray that can display in high definition. You must be proud to own this prestige laptop. The price is $5,000 and I think it’s very reasonable price compared to its feature.
4. Voodoo Envy H:171: $8500
If You want a high performance laptop that already optimized you should consider this laptop. The laptop is already optimized so will be maximal in performance. The specifications of the laptop are Intel Core 2 Extreme X6800 processor, 4 GB of RAM, twin Nvidia Quadro FX Go 2500M graphics chipset, 1.3 Megapixel webcam, dual 250 GB hard diskk, 7 in 1 memory card reader, dual layer DVD RW drive and high resolution 17 inch 1920 x 1200 display. The special thing about this laptop is the casing that can be chosen from 14 tattoos options available. The price of this laptop is $ 8,500.
3. Ego for Bentley: $20,000
From the image of this laptop, you will surely think that this is not a laptop for men. The authenticity of bentley logo make this laptop very stylish and worhty to carry match with the bentley car that also driven by the owner. The laptop can match the color of the Bentley car. This laptop usually bring by rich women that can spend $20.000 just for fashion purpose. For your intention this laptop just use 64 bit for vista and 160 GB Hard Disk .
2. Tulip E-Go Diamond: $355,000
The laptop has an image as “most luxurious laptop in the world”. And I guess it’s true. The reason is because the laptop is designed with a touch of chrome in unique women bag shapre. The grip of the laptop can be replaced with white gold and diamonds. The price of this laptop can reach $355,000. Don’t ask about performace as this is the same as usual laptop. It’s just 12 antiglare screen display, 2 GB of RAM, 160 GB Hard disk, integrated webcam, bluetooth 2.0 and DVD burner. You should be rich enough to spend $355,000 for just a laptop.
1. Luvaglio One Million Dollar Laptop: $1,000,000
The title says it all. You should own $1 million to own this laptop. This laptop is made to order and you will get your own design and specification. You can also order from what kind of material your laptop will be made. You can choose from wood, metal or iron. This laptop is also designed so the owner can upgrade the hardware themself. This laptop is equipped with 128 solid State drive, MP3 player, built in USB stick and equipped with “integrated screen cleaning feature”.
Share your comments about this post.
Author: Srihari Rao Location: Karnataka, India
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Hai friends we know that Nokia is rocking star in mobiles.Now it is again proved..!
Nokia is now coming with new smartphone Nokia E6.
This is a super phone with qwerty keypad and touch screen.
The main feature in this is, it has unbeatable battery life.
Here is some info about this gadget:
Dimension
Size: 115.5 x 59 x 10.5 mm
Weight (with battery): 133 g
Volume: 66 cc
Fully integrated Social networks:
It has five customisable home screens:
menu
Here is a video of Nokia E7.
Nokia is now coming with new smartphone Nokia E6.
This is a super phone with qwerty keypad and touch screen.
The main feature in this is, it has unbeatable battery life.
Here is some info about this gadget:
Dimension
Size: 115.5 x 59 x 10.5 mm
Weight (with battery): 133 g
Volume: 66 cc
Display:
Screen size: 2.46"
TFT LCD
Resolution: VGA (640 x 480), pixels per inch: 326ppi
16.7 million colours
Capacitive touch screen
Orientation sensor (Accelerometer)
Compass (Magnetometer)
Proximity sensor
Ambient light detector
Personalisation:
Five customisable home screens
Customisable profiles
Ringtones: mp3, AAC, eAAC, eAAC+, WMA, AMR-NB, AMR-WB
Themes
wallpapers
screensavers
audio themes
pre-installed themes
changeable colour themes
wallpapers
screensavers
audio themes
pre-installed themes
changeable colour themes
This one has internal memory of 8GB.And it has expandable upto 32 GB
It has bluetooth of v3.0. It is Symbian anna phone.It supports for MS outlook.It also have video calling option.
And another feature of this mobile is it has 8 mega pixel camera.
Microsoft business apps
Nokia E6 syncs with Microsoft Outlook
Microsoft business apps
Nokia E6 syncs with Microsoft Outlook
to deliver real-time emails, contacts and
calendar entries direct to your
home screen – at no extra cost.
Fully integrated Social networks:
It has fully integrated social networks
and you can access your E-mail
at anytime.And can use the social
networks in home scree.
And you will also get live facebook
and twitter updates
Fully customisable Home screens:
menu
widgets
themes
shortcuts
icons.
themes
shortcuts
icons.
And everyone can get updates of social
networks and Email in therir Home screens.
Here is a video of Nokia E7.
Check it out..!
Enjoy and comment..!!
Author: Srihari Rao Location: Karnataka, India
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
SONAR is useed in:
· WARFARE
· SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION
Warfare
Modern naval warfare makes extensive use of both passive and active sonar from water-borne vessels, aircraft and fixed installations. The relative usefulness of active versus passive sonar depends on the radiated noise characteristics of the target, generally a submarine. Although in World War II active sonar was used by surface craft—submarines avoided emitting pings which revealed their presence and position—with the advent of modern signal-processing passive sonar became preferred for initial detection. Submarines were then designed for quieter operation, and active sonar is now more used. In 1987 a division of Japanese company Toshiba reportedly sold machinery to the Soviet Union that allowed it to mill submarine propeller blades so that they became radically quieter, creating a huge security issue with their newer generation of submarines.
Active sonar gives the exact bearing to a target, and sometimes the range. Active sonar works the same way as radar: a signal is emitted. The sound wave then travels in many directions from the emitting object. When it hits an object, the sound wave is then reflected in many other directions. Some of the energy will travel back to the emitting source. The echo will enable the sonar system or technician to calculate, with many factors such as the frequency, the energy of the received signal, the depth, the water temperature, the position of the reflecting object, etc. Active sonar is used when the platform commander determines that it is more important to determine the position of a possible threat submarine than it is to conceal his own position. With surface ships it might be assumed that the threat is already tracking the ship with satellite data. Any vessel around the emitting sonar will detect the emission. Having heard the signal, it is easy to identify the sonar equipment used (usually with its frequency) and its position (with the sound wave's energy). Active sonar is similar to radar in that, while it allows detection of targets at a certain range, it also enables the emitter to be detected at a far greater range, which is undesirable.
Since active sonar reveals the presence and position of the operator, and does not allow exact classification of targets, it is used by fast (planes, helicopters) and by noisy platforms (most surface ships) but rarely by submarines. When active sonar is used by surface ships or submarines, it is typically activated very briefly at intermittent periods to minimise the risk of detection. Consequently active sonar is normally considered a backup to passive sonar. In aircraft, active sonar is used in the form of disposable sonobuoys that are dropped in the aircraft's patrol area or in the vicinity of possible enemy sonar contacts.
Passive sonar has several advantages. Most importantly, it is silent. If the target radiated noise level is high enough, it can have a greater range than active sonar, and allows the target to be identified. Since any motorized object makes some noise, it may in principle be detected, depending on the level of noise emitted and the ambient noise level in the area, as well as the technology used. To simplify, passive sonar "sees" around the ship using it. On a submarine, nose-mounted passive sonar detects in directions of about 270°, centered on the ship's alignment, the hull-mounted array of about 160° on each side, and the towed array of a full 360°. The invisible areas are due to the ship's own interference. Once a signal is detected in a certain direction (which means that something makes sound in that direction, this is called broadband detection) it is possible to zoom in and analyze the signal received (narrowband analysis). This is generally done using a Fourier transform to show the different frequencies making up the sound. Since every engine makes a specific sound, it is straightforward to identify the object. Databases of unique engine sounds are part of what is known as acoustic intelligence or ACINT.
Another use of passive sonar is to determine the target's trajectory. This process is called Target Motion Analysis (TMA), and the resultant "solution" is the target's range, course, and speed. TMA is done by marking from which direction the sound comes at different times, and comparing the motion with that of the operator's own ship. Changes in relative motion are analyzed using standard geometrical techniques along with some assumptions about limiting cases.
Passive sonar is stealthy and very useful. However, it requires high-tech electronic components and is costly. It is generally deployed on expensive ships in the form of arrays to enhance detection. Surface ships use it to good effect; it is even better used by submarines, and it is also used by airplanes and helicopters, mostly to a "surprise effect", since submarines can hide under thermal layers. If a submarine's commander believes he is alone, he may bring his boat closer to the surface and be easier to detect, or go deeper and faster, and thus make more sound. Examples of sonar applications in military use are given below. Many of the civil uses given in the following section may also be applicable to naval use.
Anti-submarine warfare
Until recently, ship sonars were usually with hull mounted arrays, either amidships or at the bow. It was soon found after their initial use that a means of reducing flow noise was required. The first were made of canvas on a framework, then steel ones were used. Now domes are usually made of reinforced plastic or pressurized rubber. Such sonars are primarily active in operation. An example of a conventional hull mounted sonar is the SQS-56.
Because of the problems of ship noise, towed sonars are also used. These also have the advantage of being able to be placed deeper in the water. However, there are limitations on their use in shallow water. These are called towed arrays (linear) or variable depth sonars (VDS) with 2/3D arrays. A problem is that the winches required to deploy/recover these are large and expensive. VDS sets are primarily active in operation while towed arrays are passive.
An example of a modern active/passive ship towed sonar is Sonar 2087 made by Thales Underwater Systems.
Wave measurement
An upward looking echo sounder mounted on the bottom or on a platform may be used to make measurements of wave height and period. From this statistics of the surface conditions at a location can be derived.
Bottom type assessment
Sonars have been developed that can be used to characterise the sea bottom into, for example, mud, sand, and gravel. Relatively simple sonars such as echo sounders can be promoted to seafloor classification systems via add-on modules, converting echo parameters into sediment type. Different algorithms exist, but they are all based on changes in the energy or shape of the reflected sounder pings. Advanced substrate classification analysis can be achieved using calibrated (scientific) echosounders and parametric or fuzzy-logic analysis of the acoustic data ..
Bottom topography measurement
Side-scan sonars can be used to derive maps of the topography of an area by moving the sonar across it just above the bottom. Low frequency sonars such as GLORIA have been used for continental shelf wide surveys while high frequency sonars are used for more detailed surveys of smaller areas.
Sub-bottom profiling
Powerful low frequency echo-sounders have been developed for providing profiles of the upper layers of the ocean bottom.
Synthetic aperture sonar
Various synthetic aperture sonars have been built in the laboratory and some have entered use in mine-hunting and search systems. An explanation of their operation is given in synthetic aperture sonar.
Parametric sonar
Parametric sources use the non-linearity of water to generate the difference frequency between two high frequencies. A virtual end-fire array is formed. Such a projector has advantages of broad bandwidth, narrow beamwidth, and when fully developed and carefully measured it has no obvious sidelobes.Its major disadvantage is very low efficiency of only a few percent.
· WARFARE
· SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION
Modern naval warfare makes extensive use of both passive and active sonar from water-borne vessels, aircraft and fixed installations. The relative usefulness of active versus passive sonar depends on the radiated noise characteristics of the target, generally a submarine. Although in World War II active sonar was used by surface craft—submarines avoided emitting pings which revealed their presence and position—with the advent of modern signal-processing passive sonar became preferred for initial detection. Submarines were then designed for quieter operation, and active sonar is now more used. In 1987 a division of Japanese company Toshiba reportedly sold machinery to the Soviet Union that allowed it to mill submarine propeller blades so that they became radically quieter, creating a huge security issue with their newer generation of submarines.
Active sonar gives the exact bearing to a target, and sometimes the range. Active sonar works the same way as radar: a signal is emitted. The sound wave then travels in many directions from the emitting object. When it hits an object, the sound wave is then reflected in many other directions. Some of the energy will travel back to the emitting source. The echo will enable the sonar system or technician to calculate, with many factors such as the frequency, the energy of the received signal, the depth, the water temperature, the position of the reflecting object, etc. Active sonar is used when the platform commander determines that it is more important to determine the position of a possible threat submarine than it is to conceal his own position. With surface ships it might be assumed that the threat is already tracking the ship with satellite data. Any vessel around the emitting sonar will detect the emission. Having heard the signal, it is easy to identify the sonar equipment used (usually with its frequency) and its position (with the sound wave's energy). Active sonar is similar to radar in that, while it allows detection of targets at a certain range, it also enables the emitter to be detected at a far greater range, which is undesirable.
Since active sonar reveals the presence and position of the operator, and does not allow exact classification of targets, it is used by fast (planes, helicopters) and by noisy platforms (most surface ships) but rarely by submarines. When active sonar is used by surface ships or submarines, it is typically activated very briefly at intermittent periods to minimise the risk of detection. Consequently active sonar is normally considered a backup to passive sonar. In aircraft, active sonar is used in the form of disposable sonobuoys that are dropped in the aircraft's patrol area or in the vicinity of possible enemy sonar contacts.
Passive sonar has several advantages. Most importantly, it is silent. If the target radiated noise level is high enough, it can have a greater range than active sonar, and allows the target to be identified. Since any motorized object makes some noise, it may in principle be detected, depending on the level of noise emitted and the ambient noise level in the area, as well as the technology used. To simplify, passive sonar "sees" around the ship using it. On a submarine, nose-mounted passive sonar detects in directions of about 270°, centered on the ship's alignment, the hull-mounted array of about 160° on each side, and the towed array of a full 360°. The invisible areas are due to the ship's own interference. Once a signal is detected in a certain direction (which means that something makes sound in that direction, this is called broadband detection) it is possible to zoom in and analyze the signal received (narrowband analysis). This is generally done using a Fourier transform to show the different frequencies making up the sound. Since every engine makes a specific sound, it is straightforward to identify the object. Databases of unique engine sounds are part of what is known as acoustic intelligence or ACINT.
Another use of passive sonar is to determine the target's trajectory. This process is called Target Motion Analysis (TMA), and the resultant "solution" is the target's range, course, and speed. TMA is done by marking from which direction the sound comes at different times, and comparing the motion with that of the operator's own ship. Changes in relative motion are analyzed using standard geometrical techniques along with some assumptions about limiting cases.
Passive sonar is stealthy and very useful. However, it requires high-tech electronic components and is costly. It is generally deployed on expensive ships in the form of arrays to enhance detection. Surface ships use it to good effect; it is even better used by submarines, and it is also used by airplanes and helicopters, mostly to a "surprise effect", since submarines can hide under thermal layers. If a submarine's commander believes he is alone, he may bring his boat closer to the surface and be easier to detect, or go deeper and faster, and thus make more sound. Examples of sonar applications in military use are given below. Many of the civil uses given in the following section may also be applicable to naval use.
Anti-submarine warfare
Until recently, ship sonars were usually with hull mounted arrays, either amidships or at the bow. It was soon found after their initial use that a means of reducing flow noise was required. The first were made of canvas on a framework, then steel ones were used. Now domes are usually made of reinforced plastic or pressurized rubber. Such sonars are primarily active in operation. An example of a conventional hull mounted sonar is the SQS-56.
|
Because of the problems of ship noise, towed sonars are also used. These also have the advantage of being able to be placed deeper in the water. However, there are limitations on their use in shallow water. These are called towed arrays (linear) or variable depth sonars (VDS) with 2/3D arrays. A problem is that the winches required to deploy/recover these are large and expensive. VDS sets are primarily active in operation while towed arrays are passive.
An example of a modern active/passive ship towed sonar is Sonar 2087 made by Thales Underwater Systems.
SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS:-
Biomass estimation
Detection of fish, and other marine and aquatic life, and estimation their individual sizes or total biomass using active sonar techniques. As the sound pulse travels through water it encounters objects that are of different density or acoustic characteristics than the surrounding medium, such as fish, that reflect sound back toward the sound source. These echoes provide information on fish size, location, abundance and behavior. Data is usually processed and analysed using a variety of software such as Echoview.Biomass estimation
An upward looking echo sounder mounted on the bottom or on a platform may be used to make measurements of wave height and period. From this statistics of the surface conditions at a location can be derived.
Water velocity measurement
Special short range sonars have been developed to allow measurements of water velocity.
Special short range sonars have been developed to allow measurements of water velocity.
Bottom type assessment
Sonars have been developed that can be used to characterise the sea bottom into, for example, mud, sand, and gravel. Relatively simple sonars such as echo sounders can be promoted to seafloor classification systems via add-on modules, converting echo parameters into sediment type. Different algorithms exist, but they are all based on changes in the energy or shape of the reflected sounder pings. Advanced substrate classification analysis can be achieved using calibrated (scientific) echosounders and parametric or fuzzy-logic analysis of the acoustic data ..
Bottom topography measurement
Side-scan sonars can be used to derive maps of the topography of an area by moving the sonar across it just above the bottom. Low frequency sonars such as GLORIA have been used for continental shelf wide surveys while high frequency sonars are used for more detailed surveys of smaller areas.
Sub-bottom profiling
Powerful low frequency echo-sounders have been developed for providing profiles of the upper layers of the ocean bottom.
Synthetic aperture sonar
Various synthetic aperture sonars have been built in the laboratory and some have entered use in mine-hunting and search systems. An explanation of their operation is given in synthetic aperture sonar.
Parametric sources use the non-linearity of water to generate the difference frequency between two high frequencies. A virtual end-fire array is formed. Such a projector has advantages of broad bandwidth, narrow beamwidth, and when fully developed and carefully measured it has no obvious sidelobes.Its major disadvantage is very low efficiency of only a few percent.
Author: Hari Prasanna Location: Karnataka, India
Hari Prasanna is a student currently persuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics based subjects and about technology. He will be writing some of the guest posts here.
Hari Prasanna is a student currently persuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics based subjects and about technology. He will be writing some of the guest posts here.
Nokia launches two dual sim phones in India C2-00 and X1-01.As the other phones of Nokia these also have very good features.
Nokia C2-00 : This is stylish phone with great multimedia and messaging features.This phones comes with a range of colors.And helps to keep in touch with E-mail, Internet and has media support upto 32 GB.
Dimensions:
Size: 108 x 45 x 14.65 mm
Weight (with battery): 74.1 g
Volume: 67.9cc
Personalisation:
Ring tones: mp3, AAC, WMA
Themes
Wallpapers
Screensavers
Ringtones
Pre-installed themes
Changeable colour themes
Display:
Screen size: 1.8"
Resolution: 128 x 160 pixels
Up to 65,000 colours
It has GPRS (class12) and Bluetooth connectivity. It has inbuilt Opera mini 4.0. And camera is VGA camera with portrait and lanscape modes.It has upto 5X digital video zoom.It has good sound system with 3.5mm audio jack.
Nokia X1-01: This is also a dual sim device with Series 30 as OS.
Display:
Screen size: 1.8"
It has music playback of 36 hours.It has 3.5mm audio jack.And it has memory support upto 16 GB.
And also supports FM radio.On starting up the phone you get the options for using Sim 1 or Sim 2 or dual sim (both).
Its icon sets are built using the same design as Symbian Anna that is new rounded icons.And it has the option to set different ringtones for both Sims.
And it has some preloaded games.
This handset will be available Red, Dark Grey, Ocean Blue and Orange colors.
Enjoy and comment..!
Nokia C2-00 : This is stylish phone with great multimedia and messaging features.This phones comes with a range of colors.And helps to keep in touch with E-mail, Internet and has media support upto 32 GB.
Dimensions:
Size: 108 x 45 x 14.65 mm
Weight (with battery): 74.1 g
Volume: 67.9cc
Personalisation:
Ring tones: mp3, AAC, WMA
Themes
Wallpapers
Screensavers
Ringtones
Pre-installed themes
Changeable colour themes
Display:
Screen size: 1.8"
Resolution: 128 x 160 pixels
Up to 65,000 colours
It has GPRS (class12) and Bluetooth connectivity. It has inbuilt Opera mini 4.0. And camera is VGA camera with portrait and lanscape modes.It has upto 5X digital video zoom.It has good sound system with 3.5mm audio jack.
Nokia X1-01: This is also a dual sim device with Series 30 as OS.
Display:
Screen size: 1.8"
It has music playback of 36 hours.It has 3.5mm audio jack.And it has memory support upto 16 GB.
And also supports FM radio.On starting up the phone you get the options for using Sim 1 or Sim 2 or dual sim (both).
Its icon sets are built using the same design as Symbian Anna that is new rounded icons.And it has the option to set different ringtones for both Sims.
And it has some preloaded games.
This handset will be available Red, Dark Grey, Ocean Blue and Orange colors.
Enjoy and comment..!
Author: Srihari Rao Location: Karnataka, India
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
Srihari Rao is a student currently pursuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics and technology based subjects and Blogging. This Blog helps you to know more about the Electronics, Technology and many more..
The below article is about underwater sound propagation:-
HISTORY:-
During the 1930s American engineers developed their own underwater sound detection technology and important discoveries were made, such as thermoclines that would help for future development. After technical information was exchanged between the two countries during the Second World War, Americans began to use the term SONAR for their systems, coined as the equivalent of RADAR.
Performance factors
Sound propagation
Sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. Sound travels very slowly in fresh water than in sea water, though the difference is small. The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus and mass density. The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, dissolved impurities (usually salinity), and pressure. The density effect is small. The speed of sound (in feet per second) is approximately:
4388 + (11.25 × temperature (in °F)) + (0.0182 × depth (in feet)) + salinity (in parts-per-thousand).
This derived equation is reasonably accurate for normal temperatures, concentrations of salinity and the range of most ocean depths. Ocean temperature varies with depth, but in between 30 and 100 meters there is often a marked change, called the thermocline, dividing the warmer surface water from the cold, still waters that make up the rest of the ocean. This can frustrate sonar, because a sound originating on one side of the thermocline tends to be refracted, through the thermocline. The thermocline may be present in shallower coastal waters. However, wave action will often mix the water column and eliminate the thermocline. Water pressure also affects sound propagation: higher pressure increases the sound speed, which causes the sound waves to refract away from the area of higher sound speed. The mathematical model of refraction is called Snell's law.
If the sound source is deep and the conditions are right, propagation may occur in the 'deep sound channel'. This provides extremely low propagation loss to a receiver in the channel. This is because of sound trapping in the channel with no losses at the boundaries. Similar propagation can occur in the 'surface duct' under suitable conditions. However in this case there are reflection losses at the surface.
In shallow water propagation is generally by repeated reflection at the surface and bottom, where considerable losses can occur.
Sound propagation is affected by absorption in the water itself as well as at the surface and bottom. This absorption depends upon frequency, with several different mechanisms in sea water. Long-range sonar uses low frequencies to minimise absorption effects. The sea contains many sources of noise that interfere with the desired target echo or signature. The main noise sources are waves and shipping. The motion of the receiver through the water can also cause speed-dependent low frequency noise.
Scattering
When active sonar is used, scattering occurs from small objects in the sea as well as from the bottom and surface. This can be a major source of interference. This acoustic scattering is analogous to the scattering of the light from a car's headlights in fog: a high-intensity pencil beam will penetrate the fog to some extent, but broader-beam headlights emit much light in unwanted directions, much of which is scattered back to the observer, overwhelming that reflected from the target ("white-out"). For analogous reasons active sonar needs to transmit in a narrow beam to minimise scattering.
Target characteristics
The sound reflection characteristics of the target of an active sonar, such as a submarine, are known as its target strength. A complication is that echoes are also obtained from other objects in the sea such as whales, wakes, schools of fish and rocks.
Passive sonar detects the target's radiated noise characteristics. The radiated spectrum comprises acontinuous spectrum of noise with peaks at certain frequencies which can be used for classification.
Countermeasures
Active (powered) countermeasures may be launched by a submarine under attack to raise the noise level, provide a large false target, and obscure the signature of the submarine itself.
Passive (i.e., non-powered) countermeasures include:
§ Mounting noise-generating devices on isolating devices.
§ Sound-absorbent coatings on the hulls of submarines, for example anechoic tiles.
Active sonar
Active sonar uses a sound transmitter and a receiver. When the two are in the same place it is monostatic operation. When the transmitter and receiver are separated it is bistatic operation. When more transmitters (or more receivers) are used, again spatially separated, it is multistatic operation. Most sonars are used monostatically with the same array often being used for transmission and reception. Active sonobuoy fields may be operated multistatically.
Active sonar creates a pulse of sound, often called a "ping", and then listens for reflections (echo) of the pulse. This pulse of sound is generally created electronically using a sonar Projector consisting of a signal generator, power amplifier and electro-acoustic transducer/array. A beamformer is usually employed to concentrate the acoustic power into a beam, which may be swept to cover the required search angles. Generally, the electro-acoustic transducers are of the Tonpilz type and their design may be optimised to achieve maximum efficiency over the widest bandwidth, in order to optimise performance of the overall system. Occasionally, the acoustic pulse may be created by other means, e.g. (1) chemically using explosives, or (2) airguns or (3) plasma sound sources.
To measure the distance to an object, the time from transmission of a pulse to reception is measured and converted into a range by knowing the speed of sound. To measure the bearing, severalhydrophones are used, and the set measures the relative arrival time to each, or with an array of hydrophones, by measuring the relative amplitude in beams formed through a process calledbeamforming. Use of an array reduces the spatial response so that to provide wide cover multibeamsystems are used. The target signal (if present) together with noise is then passed through various forms of signal processing, which for simple sonars may be just energy measurement. It is then presented to some form of decision device that calls the output either the required signal or noise. This decision device may be an operator with headphones or a display, or in more sophisticated sonars this function may be carried out by software. Further processes may be carried out to classify the target and localise it, as well as measuring its velocity.
The pulse may be at constant frequency or a chirp of changing frequency (to allow pulse compression on reception). Simple sonars generally use the former with a filter wide enough to cover possible Doppler changes due to target movement, while more complex ones generally include the latter technique. Since digital processing became available pulse compression has usually been implemented using digital correlation techniques. Military sonars often have multiple beams to provide all-round cover while simple ones only cover a narrow arc, although the beam may be rotated, relatively slowly, by mechanical scanning.
Particularly when single frequency transmissions are used, the Doppler effect can be used to measure the radial speed of a target. The difference in frequency between the transmitted and received signal is measured and converted into a velocity. Since Doppler shifts can be introduced by either receiver or target motion, allowance has to be made for the radial speed of the searching platform.
One useful small sonar is similar in appearance to a waterproof flashlight. The head is pointed into the water, a button is pressed, and the device displays the distance to the target. Another variant is a "fishfinder" that shows a small display with shoals of fish. Some civilian sonars (which are not designed for stealth) approach active military sonars in capability, with quite exotic three-dimensional displays of the area near the boat.
When active sonar is used to measure the distance from the transducer to the bottom, it is known as echo sounding. Similar methods may be used looking upward for wave measurement.
Active sonar is also used to measure distance through water between two sonar transducers or a combination of a hydrophone (underwater acoustic microphone) and projector (underwater acoustic speaker). A transducer is a device that can transmit and receive acoustic signals ("pings"). When a hydrophone/transducer receives a specific interrogation signal it responds by transmitting a specific reply signal. To measure distance, one transducer/projector transmits an interrogation signal and measures the time between this transmission and the receipt of the other transducer/hydrophone reply. The time difference, scaled by the speed of sound through water and divided by two, is the distance between the two platforms. This technique, when used with multiple transducers/hydrophones/projectors, can calculate the relative positions of static and moving objects in water.
In combat situations, an active pulse can be detected by an opponent and will reveal a submarine's position.
A very directional, but low-efficiency, type of sonar (used by fisheries, military, and for port security) makes use of a complex nonlinear feature of water known as non-linear sonar, the virtual transducer being known as a parametric array
Passive sonar
Passive sonar listens without transmitting. It is often employed in military settings, although it is also used in science applications, e.g., detecting fish for presence/absence studies in various aquatic environments . In the very broadest usage, this term can encompass virtually any analytical technique involving remotely generated sound, though it is usually restricted to techniques applied in an aquatic environment.
Identifying sound sources
Passive sonar has a wide variety of techniques for identifying the source of a detected sound. For example, U.S. vessels usually operate 60 Hz alternating current power systems. If transformers orgenerators are mounted without proper vibration insulation from the hull or become flooded, the 60 Hz sound from the windings can be emitted from the submarine or ship. This can help to identify its nationality, as most European submarines have 50 Hz power systems. Intermittent sound sources (such as a wrench being dropped) may also be detectable to passive sonar. Until fairly recently, an experienced trained operator identified signals, but now computers may do this.
Passive sonar systems may have large sonic databases, but the sonar operator usually finally classifies the signals manually. A computer system frequently uses these databases to identify classes of ships, actions (i.e. the speed of a ship, or the type of weapon released), and even particular ships. Publications for classification of sounds are provided by and continually updated by the US Office of Naval Intelligence.
Noise limitations
Passive sonar on vehicles is usually severely limited because of noise generated by the vehicle. For this reason, many submarines operate nuclear reactors that can be cooled without pumps, using silent convection, or fuel cells or batteries, which can also run silently. Vehicles' propellers are also designed and precisely machined to emit minimal noise. High-speed propellers often create tiny bubbles in the water, and this cavitation has a distinct sound.
The sonar hydrophones may be towed behind the ship or submarine in order to reduce the effect of noise generated by the watercraft itself. Towed units also combat the thermocline, as the unit may be towed above or below the thermocline. The display of most passive sonars used to be a two-dimensional waterfall display. The horizontal direction of the display is bearing. The vertical is frequency, or sometimes time. Another display technique is to color-code frequency-time information for bearing. More recent displays are generated by the computers, and mimic radar-type plan position indicator displays.
Performance prediction
Unlike active sonar, only one way propagation is involved. Because of the different signal processing used, the minimum detectable signal to noise ratio will be different. The equation for determining the performance of a passive sonar is:
SL − TL = NL − DI + DT where, SL=Source Level,
TL=Transmission Loss,
NL=Noise Level,
DI= Directivity index of the array.
DT=Detection Threshold
The figure of merit of a passive sonar is:
FOM = SL + DI − (NL + DT).
Hey there is still more information to share about sonars so keep waiting..!!
Sonar (stands for Sound Navigation And Ranging)is a technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in Submarine navigation) to navigate or communicate with or detect other vessels. The two types of technologies share the name "sonar": passive sonar is essentially used for listening the sound made by vessels; active sonar is used for emitting pulses of sounds and to listen echoes. Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of "targets" in the water .Acoustic location in air was used before the introduction of radar. Sonar may also be used in air as robot navigation, and SODAR (an upward looking in-air sonar) is useful for atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is also used for the equipment used to generate and receive the sound. The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high (ultrasonic). The study of underwater sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics.
During the 1930s American engineers developed their own underwater sound detection technology and important discoveries were made, such as thermoclines that would help for future development. After technical information was exchanged between the two countries during the Second World War, Americans began to use the term SONAR for their systems, coined as the equivalent of RADAR.
Performance factors
The detection, classification and localization performance of a sonar depends on the environment and the receiving equipment, as well as the transmitting equipment in an active sonar or the target radiated noise in a passive sonar.
Sound propagation
Sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. Sound travels very slowly in fresh water than in sea water, though the difference is small. The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus and mass density. The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, dissolved impurities (usually salinity), and pressure. The density effect is small. The speed of sound (in feet per second) is approximately:
4388 + (11.25 × temperature (in °F)) + (0.0182 × depth (in feet)) + salinity (in parts-per-thousand).
This derived equation is reasonably accurate for normal temperatures, concentrations of salinity and the range of most ocean depths. Ocean temperature varies with depth, but in between 30 and 100 meters there is often a marked change, called the thermocline, dividing the warmer surface water from the cold, still waters that make up the rest of the ocean. This can frustrate sonar, because a sound originating on one side of the thermocline tends to be refracted, through the thermocline. The thermocline may be present in shallower coastal waters. However, wave action will often mix the water column and eliminate the thermocline. Water pressure also affects sound propagation: higher pressure increases the sound speed, which causes the sound waves to refract away from the area of higher sound speed. The mathematical model of refraction is called Snell's law.
If the sound source is deep and the conditions are right, propagation may occur in the 'deep sound channel'. This provides extremely low propagation loss to a receiver in the channel. This is because of sound trapping in the channel with no losses at the boundaries. Similar propagation can occur in the 'surface duct' under suitable conditions. However in this case there are reflection losses at the surface.
In shallow water propagation is generally by repeated reflection at the surface and bottom, where considerable losses can occur.
Sound propagation is affected by absorption in the water itself as well as at the surface and bottom. This absorption depends upon frequency, with several different mechanisms in sea water. Long-range sonar uses low frequencies to minimise absorption effects. The sea contains many sources of noise that interfere with the desired target echo or signature. The main noise sources are waves and shipping. The motion of the receiver through the water can also cause speed-dependent low frequency noise.
When active sonar is used, scattering occurs from small objects in the sea as well as from the bottom and surface. This can be a major source of interference. This acoustic scattering is analogous to the scattering of the light from a car's headlights in fog: a high-intensity pencil beam will penetrate the fog to some extent, but broader-beam headlights emit much light in unwanted directions, much of which is scattered back to the observer, overwhelming that reflected from the target ("white-out"). For analogous reasons active sonar needs to transmit in a narrow beam to minimise scattering.
The sound reflection characteristics of the target of an active sonar, such as a submarine, are known as its target strength. A complication is that echoes are also obtained from other objects in the sea such as whales, wakes, schools of fish and rocks.
Passive sonar detects the target's radiated noise characteristics. The radiated spectrum comprises acontinuous spectrum of noise with peaks at certain frequencies which can be used for classification.
Active (powered) countermeasures may be launched by a submarine under attack to raise the noise level, provide a large false target, and obscure the signature of the submarine itself.
Passive (i.e., non-powered) countermeasures include:
§ Mounting noise-generating devices on isolating devices.
§ Sound-absorbent coatings on the hulls of submarines, for example anechoic tiles.
Anechoic tiles on the hull of HMS Triumph. |
Active sonar
Active sonar uses a sound transmitter and a receiver. When the two are in the same place it is monostatic operation. When the transmitter and receiver are separated it is bistatic operation. When more transmitters (or more receivers) are used, again spatially separated, it is multistatic operation. Most sonars are used monostatically with the same array often being used for transmission and reception. Active sonobuoy fields may be operated multistatically.
Active sonar creates a pulse of sound, often called a "ping", and then listens for reflections (echo) of the pulse. This pulse of sound is generally created electronically using a sonar Projector consisting of a signal generator, power amplifier and electro-acoustic transducer/array. A beamformer is usually employed to concentrate the acoustic power into a beam, which may be swept to cover the required search angles. Generally, the electro-acoustic transducers are of the Tonpilz type and their design may be optimised to achieve maximum efficiency over the widest bandwidth, in order to optimise performance of the overall system. Occasionally, the acoustic pulse may be created by other means, e.g. (1) chemically using explosives, or (2) airguns or (3) plasma sound sources.
To measure the distance to an object, the time from transmission of a pulse to reception is measured and converted into a range by knowing the speed of sound. To measure the bearing, severalhydrophones are used, and the set measures the relative arrival time to each, or with an array of hydrophones, by measuring the relative amplitude in beams formed through a process calledbeamforming. Use of an array reduces the spatial response so that to provide wide cover multibeamsystems are used. The target signal (if present) together with noise is then passed through various forms of signal processing, which for simple sonars may be just energy measurement. It is then presented to some form of decision device that calls the output either the required signal or noise. This decision device may be an operator with headphones or a display, or in more sophisticated sonars this function may be carried out by software. Further processes may be carried out to classify the target and localise it, as well as measuring its velocity.
The pulse may be at constant frequency or a chirp of changing frequency (to allow pulse compression on reception). Simple sonars generally use the former with a filter wide enough to cover possible Doppler changes due to target movement, while more complex ones generally include the latter technique. Since digital processing became available pulse compression has usually been implemented using digital correlation techniques. Military sonars often have multiple beams to provide all-round cover while simple ones only cover a narrow arc, although the beam may be rotated, relatively slowly, by mechanical scanning.
Particularly when single frequency transmissions are used, the Doppler effect can be used to measure the radial speed of a target. The difference in frequency between the transmitted and received signal is measured and converted into a velocity. Since Doppler shifts can be introduced by either receiver or target motion, allowance has to be made for the radial speed of the searching platform.
One useful small sonar is similar in appearance to a waterproof flashlight. The head is pointed into the water, a button is pressed, and the device displays the distance to the target. Another variant is a "fishfinder" that shows a small display with shoals of fish. Some civilian sonars (which are not designed for stealth) approach active military sonars in capability, with quite exotic three-dimensional displays of the area near the boat.
When active sonar is used to measure the distance from the transducer to the bottom, it is known as echo sounding. Similar methods may be used looking upward for wave measurement.
Active sonar is also used to measure distance through water between two sonar transducers or a combination of a hydrophone (underwater acoustic microphone) and projector (underwater acoustic speaker). A transducer is a device that can transmit and receive acoustic signals ("pings"). When a hydrophone/transducer receives a specific interrogation signal it responds by transmitting a specific reply signal. To measure distance, one transducer/projector transmits an interrogation signal and measures the time between this transmission and the receipt of the other transducer/hydrophone reply. The time difference, scaled by the speed of sound through water and divided by two, is the distance between the two platforms. This technique, when used with multiple transducers/hydrophones/projectors, can calculate the relative positions of static and moving objects in water.
In combat situations, an active pulse can be detected by an opponent and will reveal a submarine's position.
A very directional, but low-efficiency, type of sonar (used by fisheries, military, and for port security) makes use of a complex nonlinear feature of water known as non-linear sonar, the virtual transducer being known as a parametric array
Passive sonar listens without transmitting. It is often employed in military settings, although it is also used in science applications, e.g., detecting fish for presence/absence studies in various aquatic environments . In the very broadest usage, this term can encompass virtually any analytical technique involving remotely generated sound, though it is usually restricted to techniques applied in an aquatic environment.
Passive sonar has a wide variety of techniques for identifying the source of a detected sound. For example, U.S. vessels usually operate 60 Hz alternating current power systems. If transformers orgenerators are mounted without proper vibration insulation from the hull or become flooded, the 60 Hz sound from the windings can be emitted from the submarine or ship. This can help to identify its nationality, as most European submarines have 50 Hz power systems. Intermittent sound sources (such as a wrench being dropped) may also be detectable to passive sonar. Until fairly recently, an experienced trained operator identified signals, but now computers may do this.
Passive sonar systems may have large sonic databases, but the sonar operator usually finally classifies the signals manually. A computer system frequently uses these databases to identify classes of ships, actions (i.e. the speed of a ship, or the type of weapon released), and even particular ships. Publications for classification of sounds are provided by and continually updated by the US Office of Naval Intelligence.
Passive sonar on vehicles is usually severely limited because of noise generated by the vehicle. For this reason, many submarines operate nuclear reactors that can be cooled without pumps, using silent convection, or fuel cells or batteries, which can also run silently. Vehicles' propellers are also designed and precisely machined to emit minimal noise. High-speed propellers often create tiny bubbles in the water, and this cavitation has a distinct sound.
The sonar hydrophones may be towed behind the ship or submarine in order to reduce the effect of noise generated by the watercraft itself. Towed units also combat the thermocline, as the unit may be towed above or below the thermocline. The display of most passive sonars used to be a two-dimensional waterfall display. The horizontal direction of the display is bearing. The vertical is frequency, or sometimes time. Another display technique is to color-code frequency-time information for bearing. More recent displays are generated by the computers, and mimic radar-type plan position indicator displays.
Unlike active sonar, only one way propagation is involved. Because of the different signal processing used, the minimum detectable signal to noise ratio will be different. The equation for determining the performance of a passive sonar is:
SL − TL = NL − DI + DT where, SL=Source Level,
TL=Transmission Loss,
NL=Noise Level,
DI= Directivity index of the array.
DT=Detection Threshold
The figure of merit of a passive sonar is:
FOM = SL + DI − (NL + DT).
Hey there is still more information to share about sonars so keep waiting..!!
Author: Hari Prasanna Location: Karnataka, India
Hari Prasanna is a student currently persuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics based subjects and about technology. He will be writing some of the guest posts here.
Hari Prasanna is a student currently persuing his Diploma in Electronics and Communication in Bellary, Karnataka, India.. He is very interested in Electronics based subjects and about technology. He will be writing some of the guest posts here.